The llama (Lama glama) is a domesticated animal whose range encompasses the high Andes mountains of South America. Llamas are camelids (Camelidae); they are related to camels and are sometimes called New World camelids or lamoids, which includes llamas, alpaca, guanaco and vicuñas. Fossil evidence indicates that camelids originated in North America, and it is believed that one group moved north, crossing the Bering land bridge and evolving into camels, while others migrated south and became New World camelids.1 It is believed that the llama is descended from the wild guanaco (Lama guanicoe).
Llamas are slender-bodied, with long legs, long necks, short tails and large ears. They average 45 inches in height at the shoulder, with adult males weighing between 300 and 400 pounds, and adult females weighing between 230 and 350 pounds.2,3
Llamas and other New World camelids have been so widely domesticated that many lamoid species have ceased to exist in the wild. Being the largest of the New World camelids, llamas are used chiefly as pack animals by locals. An adult llama can be loaded with around 50 to 75 pounds, and can carry this weight while covering up to 20 miles a day. Pack trains of llamas can include several hundred animals, and regularly move large amounts of goods over the rough Andean terrain.2
Like their smaller cousins, the alpaca, llamas are also valued for their fleece. As a result, llama farming has become popular worldwide, particularly in North America and Europe. Interestingly, llamas and alpacas are able to breed with one another and produce fertile offspring. This suggests that both species may have stemmed from the wild guanaco (Lama guanicoe), which is believed to be the parent species of the llama.3
The llama’s natural environment in the South American Andes is at high altitude and is relatively cool. On farms in more temperate regions, a llama’s health will benefit from periodic shearing if they live where summers are hot. A llama needs about three inches of its fleece for winter warmth, so a llama sheared to one inch in the spring can grow an adequate coat by the time winter comes.3 In South America, leather is also made from llama hides; the wool is made into ropes, rugs, and fabrics.
In their natural Andean environment, the llama is a grazer and browser with a diet consisting of grasses and leaves. Llamas are adaptive feeders, however; on farms, they will eat grasses, shrubs, trees and hay. Three to five llamas can be grazed per acre, and a bale of hay will feed an adult llama for around a week.2
Llamas are not particularly loud animals, but they do use vocalizations. Llamas occasionally emit a humming noise. Females will hum to their offspring, and males emit a type of gurgling sound, often during breeding. Breeding males will “yell” at each other, and if a llama perceives danger, it will put out alarm call to warn the rest of the herd.1,2 In the wild, the dominant male typically scouts from a high vantage point to watch over his herd, vocalizing if danger arises.
The management of llamas, research and farming often require the chemical immobilization of these animals. Unfortunately, this can lead to a variety of capture‐induced risks when a llama is immobilized.4 Since all sedative and anesthetic drugs have a certain level of toxicity, their use carries risks, even to the life of healthy animals. General anesthesia techniques for camelids are similar to those for ruminants and horses.1,2,7
When chemically immobilizing llamas, monitoring core body temperature is essential.4 Until the more recent use of formulated drugs (e.g., combinations of α2-agonists such as medetomidine, detomidine, xylazine and their reversal agents), opioids were the mainstay of anesthesia in wildlife and captive care.5
Guidelines for the preparation of llamas for anesthesia and surgery include decreasing the size and pressure in C1 before anesthesia, withholding food for 12 to 18 hours in adults and withholding water for up to 12 hours.3,7 Withholding food or water in neonates is not recommended, as this increases the risk of dehydration and hypoglycemia. It is also recommended that llamas be orotracheally-intubated for procedures lasting more than 20 minutes.7
Bloat is a serious condition that can be fatal if untreated. In veterinary practices, it is often seen in large dogs and is known as gastric dilatation-volvulus (GDV), which can occur spontaneously. Bloat occurs when an animal's stomach fills with gas, food, or fluid and subsequently twists. Bloat is a condition that has been reported in llamas; while it can occur spontaneously, but is most closely associated with capture and chemical immobilization events.
Since llamas are pseudo-ruminants, an extended period of time without movement can result in a buildup of gas within the digestive tract. Failure to eliminate this gas can result in bloat and distension of the rumen. This can compress other surrounding organs and seriously impede blood flow.
In instances of bloat, the life-threatening aspects arise from the twisting and flipping of the stomach. When a llama’s stomach becomes severely distended with gas, fluid or food, it puts pressure on the surrounding organs and decreases blood flow to and from these organs. The twisted stomach is more severe, as it completely obstructs blood supply to major organs and can impact blood flow throughout the whole body, resulting in shock.4
As a case of bloat progresses, the stomach expands. As this occurs, it exerts pressure on the large abdominal arteries and veins. The blood supply is cut off to the stomach; subsequently, toxic products build up and tissues begin to die. Llamas can go into shock very quickly, and extended periods without treatment increase the risk of further damage and death.4,5
When performing procedures on chemically-immobilized llamas, a sternal recumbency position is vital, as bloat occurs more readily with animals in lateral recumbency. Other causes of bloat include the use of immobilization drugs such as the α-2-agonists (e.g., xylazine), which can result in a ruminal atony and subsequently, bloat.3
If an immobilized llama starts to bloat, all administration of immobilizing drugs should be ceased. The animal should be positioned or re-positioned into sternal recumbency with the neck extended and the head with the nose pointing down. Intubation of the animal to relieve gases inside may be performed; in some cases, trocharization of the rumen is recommended.5 If the veterinarian has high confidence that the bloat is being caused by the anesthetic agents, he or she may employ the available reversal agents to antagonize their effect.4-7
Reversal drugs (e.g., diprenorphine, naltrexone, naloxone) should be given as quickly as possible to avoid the side effects of the immobilizing agents, which may include respiratory depression and cardiovascular issues, among others. Intravenous catheters should be placed and fluid therapy begun, as bloat can cause the heart rate to race at a rate sufficient to cause heart failure. Protocols for the treatment of shock and the administration of electrolytes are also essential in stabilizing the animal.
Premature ventricular contraction (PVC) is often associated with bloat. If this arises, intravenous medications will also be needed to stabilize the heart rhythm. If the disturbed heart rhythm is noted early on, the animal’s prognosis for recovery will be good.5 In the event of a llama’s death from bloat, post-mortem gas formation in the alimentary tract should be distinguished from ante-mortem bloating, which itself can be a cause of death. 4,6